HE  NORMAL  SGHOOL 
QUARTERLY 


Series  13 


October,  1914 


Number  53 


Posture-Training  as  a  Phase 
of  School  Hygiene 

By 

MABEL  LOUISE  CUMMINGS 

DEC  1936  i*\‘. 

lINIVtRSItY  OF  SLLiNOIS 


PUBLISHT  JANUARY,  APRIL,  JULY.  AND  OCTOBER  OF  EACH 
YEAR  BY  THE  ILLINOIS  STATE  NORMAL  UNIVERSITY, 
NORMAL,  ILLINOIS  


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Publisht  by  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University,  Normal,  Illinois 


Series  13  OCTOBER,  1914  No.  53 


POSTURE-TRAINING  AS  A  PHASE  OF 
SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

By 

Mabel  Louise  Cummings 

For  the  last  half-dozen  years  games  and  dancing  have 
occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the  physical  education  of 
school  children.  They  have  absorbed  the  attention  of  teach¬ 
ers  as  each  new  thing  must  and  perhaps  well  may.  They 
have  made  for  themselvs  a  permanent  place  in  physical 
training  procedure.  Their  education  and  helth  value  is  es- 
tablisht.  Their  limitations  are  coming  to  be  understood. 
Attention  is  now  returning  to  the  training  of  posture — a 
phase  of  physical  training  which  can  never  be  safely  neg¬ 
lected,  and  without  which  work  along  other  lines  will  be  in 
part  wasted.  Indications  are  numerous  that  posture-train¬ 
ing  in  the  future  will  be  carried  on  more  intelligently  and 
successfully  than  it  has  ever  been  before.  Physicians  like 
Lovett  and  Goldthwaite  have  made  important  contributions 
to  our  knowledge  of  defectiv  posture;  while  teachers  of 
physical  training,  Miss  Bancroft  perhaps  foremost  among 
them,  have  contributed  methods  and  inspiration. 

The  Scope  and  Vital  Meaning  of  the  Subject 

Exhaustiv  treatment  of  the  subject  could  scarcely  be 
compast  in  a  sizable  volume.  I  shall  ask  the  reader’s  atten¬ 
tion,  therefore,  to  a  consideration  of  the  vertebral  colum 
only,  its  conformation  and  the  consequent  relation  of  hed, 
chest,  and  hips  to  each  other,  leaving  out  of  consideration 
the  shoulders  and  feet  except  as  these  may  be  involvd  un¬ 
avoidably,  touching  briefly  lateral  deviations  of  the  spine, 
and  speaking  as  definitly  and  practically  as  possible  of  those 
accentuations  of  the  normal  curvs  of  the  spine  which  are 


2 

so  common  and  which  affect  so  profoundly  the  general 
helth  and  the  personal  appearance.  For  convenience  the 
term  posture  will  be  used  in  this  limited  sense.  There  is  a 
practical  value  in  diverting  attention  from  the  shoulders. 
Over-emfasis  upon  the  correction  of  round  shoulders  has 
resulted  in  many  distorted  spines. 

To  the  most  casual  observer  the  conformation  of  the 
spine  and  consequent  position  of  hed,  chest  and  hips  with 
relation  to  each  other  is  constantly  changing.  In  the  flexi¬ 
ble  bodies  of  children  this  relation  is  especially  variable. 
Whether  they  sit  or  stand  their  posture  changes  frequently. 
This  is  normal  and  desirable,  but  observation  also  reveals 
the  frequent  recurrence  of  certain  postures,  and  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  this  marvelous  flexibility  of  children’s  bodies 
decreases  from  the  moment  of  birth.  Habitual  posture  be¬ 
comes  fixt.  For  this  reason  we  must  know  the  extent  to 
which  it  affects  helth,  and,  thru  helth,  efficiency. 

That  there  is  a  relation  between  helth  and  efficiency  on 
the  one  hand  and  posture  on  the  other  has  long  been  notist 
by  those  who  look  at  men  and  women  in  large  groups.  No 
one  denies  the  more  frequent  occurrence  of  erect  bearing 
with  broad  chest  and  shoulders  among  the  more  efficient 
members  of  a  community  or  its  comparativ  rarity  in  groups 
whose  physical  capital  yields  poor  returns  in  the  commercial 
and  industrial  world.  The  coincidence  of  lung  trouble  with 
defectiv  posture  has  become  traditional,  and  tho  by  no 
means  as  invariable  as  it  has  been  thought  to  be,  it  is  yet 
frequent.  No  less  frequent  than  the  sunken  chest  of  the  con- 
sumptiv,  perhaps,  is  the  hollow  back  and  the  relaxt  abdomen 
of  the  nervous  dyspeptic.  In  girls  and  women  chronic  back¬ 
ache  and  periodic  pain  not  seldom  yield  to  no  other  treat¬ 
ment  than  a  readjustment  of  the  vertebral  colum,  a  correc¬ 
tion  of  posture. 

Basic  Ideas  Underlying  Posture-Training 

It  may  possibly  be  argued  that,  except  in  the  last  case, 
these  are  instances  of  coincidence  which  are  not  proved  to 
be  cause  and  effect.  Some  freshening  of  one’s  knowledge 
of  human  anatomy  and  physiology,  however,  will  make 
such  cause-and-effect  relation  clear  and  at  the  same  time 


3 

result  in  the  necessary  basis  for  arguments  that  are  to  fol¬ 
low. 

Recall  the  spine  as  a  colum  of  twenty-four  vertebrae 
resting  on  the  wedge-shaped  sacrum  which  is  held  firmly 
between  the  two  hip  bones,  surmounting  it  the  skull,  at- 
tacht  to  it  the  twelv  pairs  of  ribs.  Recall  that  the  vertebrae 
are  separated  by  discs  of  cartilage  and  are  bound  together 
pretty  firmly  by  ligaments,  that  not  much  motion  is  permit¬ 
ted  between  any  two,  but  that  the  slight  motion  at  each  joint 
results  in  a  flexible  colum  capable  of  bending  in  all  direc¬ 
tions,  capable  also  of  some  twisting  or  rotation.  Recall  that 
the  joint  between  spine  and  skull  is  a  freely  movable  one, 
that  the  hed  may  be  easily  balanst  upon  the  spine  or  may  as¬ 
sume  a  position  in  which  its  whole  weight  bears  to  bring  the 
upper  spine  forward,  that  the  twelv  pairs  of  ribs  are  set  on 
the  twelv  dorsal  vertebrae  at  an  angle  so  that  viewd  from  the 
side  they  are  seen  to  slope  downward,  that  the  joints  between 
ribs  and  vertebrae  are  but  slightly  movable  so  that  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  spine  affects  directly  the  position  of  the  ribs. 
Recall  what  are  spoken  of  as  the  normal  curves  of  the  spine 
— convexity  forward  in  the  cervical  region,  backward  in  the 
dorsal  region,  and  forward  again  in  the  lumbar  or  waist 
region,  with  the  sacrum  effecting  a  second  backward  con¬ 
vexity  below  the  waist.  Finally  let  us  realize  that  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  these  bones  with  relation  to  each  other  is  maintaind 
by  muscular  activity  directed  against  the  force  of  gravity. 

We  know  that  man  alone  of  the  vertebrates  walks  with 
spine  erect,  that  the  erect  posture  does  not  characterize  man’s 
near  relations  among  the  apes  nor  the  newborn  of  his  own 
species  in  which  it  is  acquired  months  after  birth,  yet  we 
rarely  reflect  that  its  maintenance  is  a  feat  of  considerable 
difficulty  or  that  upon  it  his  survival  depends. 

Nature’s  Provision  for  Correct  Normal  Posture 

The  arrangement  of  muscle  groups  by  which  this  flexi¬ 
ble  colum,  man’s  body,  is  made  to  balance  itself  upright 
upon  a  small  base,  the  feet,  is  less  easily  pictured  than  is  the 
relation  of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton.  Figure  l1,  adapted  from 
Hough  and  Sedgwick’s  Human  Mechanism,  diagrams  it  ad¬ 
mirably.  A  moment’s  study  makes  clear  the  action  of 

'Used  here  by  courtesy  of’Ginn  and  Company,  Publishers. 


4 

groups  A  and  D,  E,  B  and  H.  Groups  F  and  G  must  be  delt 
with  more  slowly.  Group  F  represents  the  muscles  forming 
the  abdominal  wall.  Test  their  action  by  bending  backward 
and  noting  the  hardness  of  these  muscles  when  they  con¬ 
tract  to  prevent  the  trunk  from  falling  backward.  Again, 
without  tipping  backward,  contract  these  muscles  and  draw 
in  the  abdominal  wall.  Does  this  increase  or  decrease  the 
lumbar  curv  of  the  spine?  What  effect  has  it  upon  the  ab¬ 
dominal  organs?  Group  G  represents  what  are  known  as 
extensors  of  the  spine.  These  lie  in  two  groovs  on  either 
side  of  a  central  row  of  spinal  projections  and  when  they 
are  contracted  in  the  lumbar  region  can  be  felt  as  two  hard, 
rounded  colums.  Place  the  hand  over  the  hollow  of  the 
back  and  bend  forward  from  the  hips.  Notis  how  these  two 
colums  of  muscles  thicken  and  harden.  Standing  erect,  hol¬ 
low  the  back  excessivly  and  feel  how  these  muscles  harden 
and  stand  out.  Contract  the  spinal  extensors  higher  up. 
Does  this  flatten  or  increase  the  dorsal  convexity?  Does  it 
raise  or  lower  the  ribs?  Let  the  hed  droop  forward.  Raise 
it  and  pull  in  the  chin.  Notis  the  relation  between  position 
of  hed  and  position  of  chest. 

In  ways  like  this  we  can  demonstrate  that  contraction 
of  the  abdominal  muscles  decreases  the  lumbar  curv  and 
raises  and  supports  the  abdominal  organs,  while  contrac¬ 
tion  of  the  spinal  extensors  at  the  waist  increases  the  lumbar 
curv  and  draws  the  hips  backward.  Activity  of  the  neck 
muscles  and  those  of  the  upper  spine  determin  the  position 
of  the  hed  and  chest. 

The  Hygienic  Import  of  Posture  and  Its  Renewd  Demand 
for  Attention 

Very  evidently  the  conformation  of  the  spine  depends 
upon  the  degree  of  contraction  in  each  of  these  muscle 
groups.  Evidently  the  relation  of  hed,  chest,  and  hips  to 
each  other  depends  upon  conformation  of  the  spine.  Lung 
capacity  and  breathing  movements  depend  upon  position 
of  the  chest.  It  may  also  be  rememberd  that  breathing 
movements  not  only  pump  air  into  the  lungs  but  blood  into 
the  hart,  and  that  this  aspiration  of  the  thorax  is  the  one 


o 


constant  means  of  moving  lymph  along  the  lymph  tubes 
and  freshening  the  environment  of  every  cell  in  the  body. 

By  pumping  blood  into  the  hart  it  is  to  be  understood 
that  we  mean  hastening  its  return  from  organs  lying  outside 
the  chest-cavity  thru  the  suction  of  breathing  movements. 
Activ  muscle-masses  like  the  arms  and  legs  are  not  depend¬ 
ent  upon  such  force  but  organs  suspended  in  the  mesentery 
and  those  lying  deep  in  the  pelvis  suffer  impaird  circulation 
when  activ  breathing  movements  are  interfered  with.  So 
markt  is  the  effect  of  deep  breathing  upon  circulation  in  the 
pelvic  organs  that  its  use  has  formd  a  prominent  part  of 
successful  treatment  in  certain  cases  of  their  too  prolongd 
congestion. 

The  relation  of  posture  to  helth  is  truly  one  of  cause 
and  effect.  Any  posture  which  compresses  the  viscera  re¬ 
sults  in  deprest  vitality.  Exactly  such  an  effect  results  from 
the  usual  sitting  posture  of  sedentary  occupations.  Its  re¬ 
verse  is  seen  in  the  physical  stamina  and  longevity  of  long¬ 
bodied  individuals.  It  is  said  that  in  men  of  power  the  trunk 
is  notably  long  in  proportion  to  length  of  lim.  Anything 
which  gives  maximum  capacity  to  both  thoracic  and  ab¬ 
dominal  cavities  with  consequent  space  for  the  growth  and 
free  activity  of  visceral  organs  is  surely  of  first  importance 
in  the  care  and  training  of  children. 

It  is  not  assumed  that  the  importance  of  posture  is  a  re¬ 
cently  discoverd  fact.  For  years  school  furniture  has  been 
designd,  systems  of  writing  introduced  or  discarded,  and 
gymnastics  relied  upon  in  the  attempt  to  cultivate  correct 
posture  in  children.  It  is  assumed,  however,  that  posture- 
training  can  yield  better  results  than  it  usually  has  done; 
that  we  need  to  sum  up  our  whole  experience  and  to  act  in 
the  light  of  it.  And  it  is  believd  that  with  a  clearer  idea  of 
what  constitutes  faulty  posture,  what  causes  lie  behind  its 
formation  and  the  recognition  that  posture-training  means 
posture-teaching  with  the  same  use  of  pedagogical  principle 
and  device  that  is  habitual  in  other  teaching,  our  efforts  will 
not  be  so  frequently  wasted  as  they  have  been  in  the  past. 


6 

Correct  Posture  and  Its  Tests 

Let  us  define  good  standing-posture  as  that  in  which 
the  curvs  of  the  spine  and  the  consequent  position  of  hed, 
chest,  and  hips  make  possible  the  freest  activity  of  visceral 
organs  and  the  maintenance  of  upright  balance  without  un¬ 
due  muscular  effort.  This  will  mean  that  the  body  is  drawn 
up  to  nearly  its  fullest  hight;  that  none  of  the  curvs  of  the 
spine  are  accentuated;  that  the  chest  is  lifted,  but  without 
constraint;  that  hed,  chest,  and  hips  are  in  a  vertical  line, 
(see  Fig.  6)  ;  that  shoulders  and  arms  hang  easily.  This  is 
not  a  gymnastic  position;  it  is  not  intended  to  be.  While 
taking  gymnastics  children  may  be  required  to  extend  the 
arms  vertically  downward  from  the  shoulders  with  palms 
toward  the  body,  but  the  greatest  care  is  necessary  to  avoid 
the  stiff,  crampt  carriage  of  the  shoulders  which  comes  from 
calling  attention  to  them.  Generally  when  hed,  chest,  and 
hips  are  properly  adjusted,  the  shoulders  will,  if  permitted, 
hang  easily  in  the  right  position.  Nothing  is  worse  than  to 
say  to  a  class,  “Throw  back  your  shoulders.” 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  some  definit  and 
easily  applied  test  for  good  posture  should  be  understood  by 
teachers  and  pupils.  Jessie  H.  Bancroft  in  her  recent  book, 
“The  Posture  of  School  Children,”  describes  such  a  test  and 
the  methods  and  results  of  its  application  in  the  schools  of 
New  York  City.  It  seems  difficult  to  over-estimate  the  value 
of  her  simple  device.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated, 
makes  a  thoro  study  of  the  whole  subject  of  posture,  and  will 
be  an  inspiration  to  every  teacher  who  reads  it.  Her  test 
consists  in  estimating  the  position  of  hed,  chest,  and  hips  by 
dropping  a  vertical  line  from  the  front  margin  of  the  ear. 
This  line  should  coincide  with  or  parallel  the  long  axes  of 
hed  and  trunk  and  should  fall  in  front  of  the  ankle.  A  con¬ 
venient  way  of  making  the  test  is  to  place  oneself  in  position 
to  get  an  accurate  side  view  of  the  pupil  and  hold  at  arm’s 
length  a  window  stick  to  represent  the  line.  One  then  notes 
deviations  from  the  vertical  in  the  three  main  segments  of 
the  body:  hed,  trunk,  and  legs.  A  cord  and  weight  could  be 
used,  but  swinging  of  the  pendulum  prevents  the  rapid  work 
necessary  with  a  large  number  of  children.  This  test  is 
easily  comprehended  by  children,  is  sufficiently  accurate  for 


7 

schoolroom  use,  and  can  be  made  rapidly.  The  actual  rod 
or  line  should  be  used  until  the  children  thoroly  understand 
the  test.  By  that  time  the  teacher’s  eye  will  be  so  traind  that 
she  can  stand  at  a  distance  and  sight  the  pupil  with  vertical 
pencil,  as  is  done  in  drawing  from  the  model,  or  even  the 
pencil  may  be  dispenst  with. 

The  practical  value  of  the  test  is  seen  in  the  ease  with 
which  it  reveals  the  typical  deviations  from  upright  adjust¬ 
ment.  Such  mal-adjustments  are  usually  groupt  as  follows  : 

Types  op  Depectiv  Posture 

1.  Rare  cases  which  show,  not  a  simple  accentuation  of 
normal  curvs,  but  a  fixt  angular  deformity  of  the  spine. 
These  are  probably  tubercular  and  are  cases  for  the  physi¬ 
cian,  not  the  teacher.  They  should  not  be  meddled  with. 

2.  The  commonest  of  all  defectiv  postures.  (See  Fig¬ 
ured).  The  trunk  from  the  waist  up  sags  backward;  the 
chest  sinks;  the  hed  droops;  the  hips  are  too  far  forward. 
The  dorsal  curv  is  accentuated,  the  lumbar  curv  somewhat 
increast.  The  value  of  the  Bancroft  test  is  evident  here,  for 
while  clothing  conceals  the  curv  of  the  spine  the  long  axes 
of  hed,  trunk,  and  legs  are  well  made  out  and  are  seen  to 
form  not  a  vertical  line  but  a  zigzag.  This  is  the  position  of 
relaxation,  one  in  which  the  muscles  have  transferd  a  part 
of  their  work  to  the  ligaments.  It  is  sometimes  spoken  of 
as  the  fatigue  posture. 

By  reference  to  Fig.  1  and  by  recalling  the  simple  ex¬ 
periments  suggested  for  finding  the  effect  of  contracting 
different  muscle  groups,  it  may  be  seen  that  we  need  here 
contraction  of  abdominal  muscles  to  reduce  the  lumbar  curv 
and  bring  the  upper  trunk  forward,  while  the  dorsal  curv 
will  be  reduced  and  the  hed  and  chest  lifted  by  activity  of 
the  spinal  extensors  in  the  neck  region. 

3.  A  less  common  type  (see  Figure  3),  except  in  classes 
where  mistaken  methods  of  teaching  have  been  in  use. 
Both  hips  and  shoulders  are  thrown  backward.  The  back 
is  hollowd  excessivly.  This  posture  is  most  often  induced 
by  the  command,  “Throw  back  your  shoulders;”  some¬ 
times  by  an  exaggerated  effort  to  lift  the  chest.  Here  the 
need  for  abdominal  contraction  is  evident.  Often  a  definit 


8 

effort  to  relax  the  spinal  muscles  is  in  order.  This  is  a  dif¬ 
ficult  position  to  correct. 

4.  A  defect  less  common  among  children  than  among 
adults.  Insted  of  accentuation  of  curvs,  their  elimination 
is  almost  accomplisht;  rather,  all  are  merged  into  one.  The 
chest  is  deprest,  both  hed  and  hips  are  forward,  the  hollow 
of  the  back  is  obliterated.  In  children  this  posture  is  often- 
est  seen  when  they  slide  forward  in  their  seats  and  sit  on  the 
lower  part  of  their  backs.  Correction  will  deal  with  the 
spinal  extensors  thruout  their  whole  length.  From  hed  to 
sacrum  they  have  been  stretcht  and  relaxt.  They  must  be 
toned  up  and  shortend. 

Very  commonly,  in  addition  to  the  mal-adjustments  re- 
veald  by  the  Bancroft  test,  there  exist  lateral  deviations. 
These  frequently  but  not  always  show  in  uneven  shoulders 
and  hips.  Very  slight  lateral  deviation  is  so  common  that 
by  some  it  is  considerd  normal.  Serious  deviation  calls  for 
the  attention  of  a  physician.  Parents  should  be  urged  to  get 
the  advice  of  a  specialist.  Without  that  advice  the  teacher 
should  forbid  twisting  and  lateral  bending  of  the  trunk  in 
gymnastics  and  should  encourage  in  all  ways  stretching  the 
spine  to  an  erect  position. 

Causes  of  Defectiv  Posture 

Causativ  conditions  fall  into  two  groups:  (1)  those  that 
affect  general  helth,  fatigue  being  their  most  common  symp¬ 
tom,  and  (2)  those  that  form  habits.  Proportions  of  the 
bony  skeleton,  length  of  ligament,  organic  disease,  and  nu¬ 
merous  other  factors  do  enter  into  the  formation  of  defectiv 
posture,  but  if  the  teacher  keeps  constantly  in  mind  fatigue 
and  habit  he  will  have  a  good  working  basis  for  posture¬ 
training.  To  avoid  fatigue  and  to  form  correct  posture  hab¬ 
its  :  these  constitute  the  problem  to  solv  which  a  teacher 
must  bring  to  bear  all  he  knows  of  hygiene  and  pedagogy. 
In  his  teaching  of  hygiene  and  in  the  hygiene  of  his  teach¬ 
ing  lie  valuable  aids. 

(1)  Fatigue  as  a  cause  of  defectiv  posture.  —  The 
causes  of  fatigue  may  be  found  in  the  home — in  dietary 
errors  and  habits  of  sleep,  in  work  unsuited  to  growing 
children,  like  the  carrying  of  babies  and  the  lifting  of  other 


9 

hevy  loads.  Physical  inheritance  determins  vitality  in  some 
cases.  Diseased  tonsils,  decayed  teeth,  defectiv  vision  and 
hearing  must  not  be  overlookt.  Adenoids  in  themselvs  so 
impede  respiration  that  they  are  a  potent  cause  of  defectiv 
posture.  Rapid  growth  is  another  condition  to  be  reckond 
with.  Or,  causes  of  fatigue  may  lie  within  the  school — in 
the  furniture,  in  the  lighting,  in  lack  of  fresh  air.  Askt  to 
name  the  one  thing  which  operates  most  powerfully  to  pro¬ 
duce  fatigue-posture  the  writer  would  name  schoolroom  air ; 
and  she  would  venture  to  predict  that  the  time  will  come 
when  we  shall  abandon  our  elaborate  and  expensiv  ap¬ 
paratus  for  preparing  and  distributing  air  to  our  school¬ 
rooms  and  return  to  simpler  and  more  helthful  methods  of 
ventilation  and  heating. 

We  must  remember  what  muscular  activity  the  erect 
posture  requires.  We  cannot  discharge  our  responsibility  for 
preventing  muscular  fatigue  by  putting  in  adjustable  seats, 
or  even  by  spending  ten  minutes  a  day  in  gymnastic  ex¬ 
ercise.  There  is  at  present  little  disposition  on  the  part  of 
educators  to  treat  helth  responsibility  thus  lightly.  This  as¬ 
pect  of  posture-training  presents  only  an  added  reason  for 
doing  what  is  alredy  being  done  in  many  schools,  what  is 
lookt  forward  to  by  all — the  correction  of  nose,  throat,  and 
eye  defects;  the  improvement  of  helth  conditions  in  the 
home  by  visiting  nurses  or  parent-teacher  organizations,  and 
the  provision  of  a  school  environment  in  all  ways  favorable 
to  the  normal  growth  of  children. 

(2)  Habits  as  causes  of  defectiv  posture. — Rarely  or 
never  should  effort  be  directed  to  helth  maintenance  only. 
A  rough  statement,  but  sufficiently  accurate  for  our  pur¬ 
poses,  is  that  muscles  relax  because  they  are  tired,  and  just 
what  ones  relax,  to  what  extent  they  relax,  thus,  just  what 
posture  results  is  determind  by  conditions  largely  within 
our  control.  The  erect  posture  is  maintaind  by  well-dis¬ 
tributed  muscular  work;  the  burden  falls  on  no  one  group; 
but  when  bending  forward  over  book,  woodwork,  or  piece 
of  sewing,  the  full  weight  of  hed  and  chest  falls  upon  the 
group  of  spinal  muscles ;  these  partially  relax  and  the  spine 
becomes  rounded.  The  muscles  may  develop  consider¬ 
able  strength  hut  they  have  been  stretcht;  the  check- 


10 

rein  is  not  short  enough  to  hold  hed  and  chest  erect.  The 
dorsal  curv  is  accentuated  and  the  lumbar  muscles  reliev 
themselvs  by  throwing  the  trunk  backward  to  balance  the 
weight  of  the  drooping  hed.  We  have  the  posture  described 
under  Type  2  in  our  list  above.  Abdominal  muscles  become 
weak  because  in  neither  sitting  nor  standing  does  the  bent 
posture  employ  them.  Posture-sense  becomes  perverted  and 
gives  no  intimation  of  the  existing  mal-adjustment.  Ulti¬ 
mately  some  ligaments  become  stretcht,  others  shortend, 
and  there  results  an  uncomfortable  sense  of  the  grotesque 
when  the  spine  is  properly  curvd  and  the  hed,  chest,  and 
hips  properly  adjusted. 

This  is  a  typical  example  of  permanent  defect  resulting 
from  habit.  Frequently  as  here  the  habit  is  responsible  both 
for  the  muscular  fatigue  and  for  the  direction  and  extent  to 
which  relaxation  takes  place.  Thus  the  bent  sitting  posture 
described  tends  to  perpetuate  itself  and  to  induce  defectiv 
standing  posture  as  well. 

Sometimes  the  bent  postures  are  inevitable  (for  the  use 
of  books  and  pencils  cannot  be  abandoned)  but  often  they 
are  not.  If  vision  is  defectiv  or  light  insufficient  they  are 
accentuated  inevitably.  If  desks  are  too  low  or  seats  too 
high  to  permit  the  feet  to  rest  flat  on  the  floor,  anything  ap¬ 
proaching  the  erect  posture  is  extremely  difficult.  Some¬ 
times  badly  adjusted  suspenders  or  hose  supporters  make 
difficult  the  erect  posture ;  sometimes  hevy,  ill-fitting  clothes. 
Again,  a  slouch  may  be  the  result  of  a  mental  attitude,  in¬ 
difference  to  school  work,  or  devotion  to  a  fashion.  Un- 
doutedly  no  two  cases  ar  due  to  identical  causes. 

Suggestions  for  Posture-Training 

These  bad  posture-habits  must  be  broken  up  and  good 
ones  formd.  Direct  instruction  naturally  belongs  to  the 
period  assignd  to  physical  training,  but  attention  to  posture 
must  not  be  confined  to  that  period. 

While  the  teacher  need  not  place  too  great  faith  in  his 
own  analysis,  the  attempt  to  account  for  individual  cases 
will  make  his  work  more  intelligent  and  forceful.  And  he 
need  not  be  greatly  disturbed  by  feeling  thus  inadequate  to 
accurate  individual  analysis,  for  three  aims  must  shape  his 


11 

efforts  with  all  children.  These  are — (1)  to  maintain  the 
tone  and  elasticity  of  all  trunk  muscles,  (2)  to  preserv  the 
sense  of  correct  posture  in  those  who  have  not  lost  it  and  to 
restore  it  in  those  who  have,  (3)  to  preserv  the  habit  of  cor¬ 
rect  adjustment  of  the  hed,  chest,  and  hips  where  it  has  not 
been  lost,  to  form  it  where  it  does  not  exist. 

In  recalling  means  to  these  ends  the  attempt  is  here 
made  to  be  merely  suggestiv  for  the  most  part,  emphatic 
only  where  special  need  is  suspected. 

(1)  Cultivation  of  muscular  tone. — This  of  course  in¬ 
cludes  the  whole  of  hygienic  practis.  It  suggests  particularly 
an  abundance  of  outdoor  air  while  children  are  studying  and 
frequent  relief  from  the  strain  of  sustaind  position  by  brief 
exercises  in  standing  position.  It  calls  for  a  vigorous  use  of 
the  trunk-muscles  in  sports  and  gymnastics;  the  choice  of 
movements  which  involv  bending  of  the  trunk,  twisting  it, 
stretching  it;  movements,  too,  that  induce  deep  breathing, 
that  are  vigorous  and  stimulating,  with  care  to  avoid  over¬ 
fatigue.  The  suggestion  of  definit  games  and  exercises  is 
unnecessary.  Furniture  that  supports  the  spinal  muscles  is 
essential  and  insistence  that  it  be  utilized  in  this  way  by 
reasonably  erect  sitting  posture  is  a  valuable  means  of 
avoiding  fatigue.  Children  should  sit  well  back  in  their 
seats  and  make  use  of  the  support  thus  furnisht  by  leaning 
back,  rather  than  forward  upon  their  elbows,  whenever  such 
a  position  is  consistent  with  their  occupation.  Remember 
that  a  crampt  or  slouching  posture  means  actual  muscular 
strain. 

(2)  Cultivation  of  the  posture-sense. — The  sense  of  cor¬ 
rect  posture  might  be  termd  “the  feel  of  it.”  We  recognize 
the  position  of  any  part  of  the  body  by  sensory  stimuli  com¬ 
ing  from  the  muscles  and  joints  involvd.  A  perfectly  nor¬ 
mal  child  knows  by  these  stimuli  when  the  parts  of  his  body 
are  so  adjusted  that  what  we  have  termd  correct  posture  re¬ 
sults.  The  child  who  has  acquired  one  of  the  bad  habits  of 
standing  described  above,  if  directed  to  take  an  erect  pos¬ 
ture,  may  be  unable  to  do  so,  for  he  has  forgotten  the  mus¬ 
cular  sensations  which  accompany  it.  He  feels  uncomfor¬ 
table  and  awkward  and  makes  either  too  great  an  effort,  not 
enough  effort,  or  an  altogether  wrong  one.  The  normal 


12 

child  feels  comfortable  and  right  in  the  posture  which  is 
best  for  him.  We  want  all  children  to  feel  more  comforta¬ 
ble  in  a  correct  posture  than  in  any  other.  Such  an  end  is 
impossible  without  repetition,  for  the  unaccustomed  is  never 
comfortable.  Only  when  muscles  and  ligaments  act  in  ha¬ 
bitual  fashion  to  maintain  the  desired  poise  does  such  be¬ 
come  thoroly  comfortable. 

This  cultivation  of  the  posture-sense  should  mean  giv¬ 
ing  first  a  distinct  visual  image  of  the  correct  adjustment  of 
chest  and  hed,  spine,  and  hips,  for  effort  has  been  wasted 
repeatedly  by  asking  children  to  do  what  they  did  not  under¬ 
stand.  Have  we  always  known  ourselves  just  what  we 
wanted  when  we  askt  them  to  “straighten  up”?  Some 
training  of  the  eye  to  recognize  the  fundamentals  of  bodily 
poise  comes  logically  at  the  beginning  of  posture-training. 
It  may  be  attempted  by  selecting  the  best  and  criticizing  the 
worst  posture-habits  of  the  children,  but  there  is  no  pleas¬ 
anter  or  more  certain  way  of  training  the  eye  than  by  study¬ 
ing  those  figures  of  courage  and  strength  which  have  been 
painted  or  done  in  marble  or  bronze  by  men  who  knew  and 
loved  physical  perfection.  Many  prints  and  casts  commonly 
found  in  public  school  bildings  could  not  be  better  chosen 
for  the  purpose:  St.  Gaudens’  Lincoln — the  standing  figure; 
Guido  Reni’s  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  and  his  Aurora;  the  Vic¬ 
tory  of  Samothrace.  So  splendid  is  the  poise  of  the  Victory 
that  no  other  figure  with  parts  intact  could  speak  with  half 
its  force.  The  Lincoln  is  especially  valuable  in  showing 
how  perfectly  erect  the  human  form  may  be  in  half  relaxt 
position.  Apollo  and  the  Muses  shows  the  figures  strong, 
sturdy,  buoyant.  Greek  sculpture  is  full  of  inspiration.  If 
one  has  not  learnd  to  love  it  before,  joy  will  come  when  it  is 
studied  with  this  end  in  view.  Both  teacher  and  pupils  must 
come  to  recognize  instantly  the  beautiful  and  natural  erect¬ 
ness  of  strength  and  courage.  Van  Dycke’s  children  and 
Gainsborough’s  men  and  women  will  appeal  to  girls,  pic¬ 
tures  of  athletes  and  heroes  to  boys.  When  erect  posture  is 
seen  to  be  associated  with  joy  and  strength  and  courage  it 
becomes  interesting.  The  children  can  search  for  pictures 
showing  the  erect  figure,  and  bring  these  in  for  the  judgment 
of  the  class.  Attention  should  be  cald  especially  to  the  posi- 


13 

tion  of  hed  and  chest  where  it  is  fine,  for  attention  to  this  in 
practis  later  will  often  correct  the  whole  body  poise. 
The  vertical  line  test  may  now  be  explaind.  When 
the  body  is  strong,  erect,  and  buoyant,  as  in  the  pic¬ 
tures  just  mentioned,  the  hed  is  in  vertical  line  with 
the  trunk  and  this  sags  neither  forward  nor  back¬ 
ward.  The  collapst  zigzag  line  that  results  from  weak¬ 
ness  may  be  shown.  To  bring  the  visual  concept 
into  terms  of  the  child’s  own  figure,  there  is  an  ex¬ 
cellent  wall  chart  publisht  by  the  American  Posture  League. 
It  shows  a  child  in  modern  costume  standing  in  the  fatigue 
position,  and  again  in  the  hollow  backt  position.  The  use 
of  this  chart  in  every  schoolroom  would  clarify  and  make 
definit  the  visual  image  essential  to  intelligent  effort;  and, 
furthermore,  it  would  serv  the  valuable  purpose  of  a  stand¬ 
ard.  Why  should  teachers  expect  to  cultivate  good  habits 
of  standing  any  more  than  good  habits  of  writing  without  a 
standard  model?  There  is  the  same  danger  that  in  passing 
from  grade  to  grade  children  will  form  no  habit  or  even 
have  good  habits  destroyd  because  of  variation  in  demand 
from  different  teachers. 

Now,  with  the  visual  image  of  erect  posture  vivid  in 
each,  with  admiration  for  it  kindled  by  some  association  or 
favorit  picture,  its  translation  into  terms  of  the  muscular 
sense  may  be  attempted.  Let  the  children  rise  and  each 
show  his  idea  of  a  correct  standing  position.  Many  will 
be  able  to  achiev  the  desired  adjustment  at  once;  some  will 
not,  and  the  teacher  will  have  reacht  the  most  difficult  part 
of  posture  training,  for  in  one  way  or  other  every  child  must 
be  brought  to  reproduce  the  posture  shown  on  the  chart,  to 
get  the  muscular  sense  of  easily  erect  posture.  Those  who 
are  successful  at  once  should  have  their  success  proved  by 
the  vertical-line  tect  and  be  placed  in  an  aile  by  themselvs 
to  form  the  nucleus  of  an  honor  squad,  to  which  others  are 
added  as  they  demonstrate  their  right  to  it.  The  others  must 
be  helpt  to  the  muscular  sense  of  a  good  posture  in  future 
gymnastic  periods  with  all  the  ingenuity  at  the  teacher’s 
command.  A  good  model  for  the  class  and  individual  rather 
than  class  corrections  are  essentials  to  success.  Only  a  few 
class  directions  ever  can  be  given  safely  in  working  for  ad- 


Fig.  1  Fig.  2  Fig.  3 

Fatigue  posture  The  over-corrected  position 


Fig.  4  ,  Fig.  5  Fig.  6 

Stretching  out  accentuated  curves  Arm-stretching  upward  Correct  standing  position 


16 

justment  of  the  spine.  All  types  of  defectiv  posture  are 
present  in  a  class.  A  suggestion  which  is  effectiv  in  the 
correction  of  one  will  only  accentuate  another,  and  the 
children  have  not  the  discrimination  to  recognize  where 
each  suggestion  is  intended  to  apply.  Very  often  manual 
correction  is  the  quickest  and  most  effectiv  means  of  getting 
the  desired  result.  In  giving  this  and  in  the  individual  di¬ 
rections  which  must  be  given  where  manual  correction  is 
impossible  it  is  hoped  that  the  mechanism  of  the  standing- 
posture  alredy  explaind  and  illustrated  by  diagram  will 
prove  useful. 

For  bringing  a  posture  of  Type  2  (Fig.  2)  into  vertical 
adjustment  the  suggestion  may  be  given  to  “contract  ab¬ 
dominal  muscles”  or  to  “pull  in  the  belt  in  front.”  Or  one 
hand  may  be  placed  over  the  belt  in  front,  one  between  the 
shoulders,  and  pressure  exerted  by  the  two  hands  in  opposit 
directions.  This  method  is  well  illustrated  by  Miss  Ban¬ 
croft’s  book.  If  at  the  same  time  the  child  pushes  upward 
with  the  hed,  the  spine  often  is  brought  to  its  normal  ad¬ 
justment.  Sometimes  a  strong  effort  to  lift  the  chest  will 
do  away  with  the  objectionable  backward  sag  of  the  upper 
trunk.  If  this  results  in  an  over-corrected  position,  atten¬ 
tion  had  better  be  diverted  to  the  hed  and  a  vigorous  reach¬ 
ing  up  with  the  crown  of  the  hed  directed.  One  of  the  few 
valuable  class  suggestions  is  to  stand  to  the  fullest  possible 
hight  without  stiffness. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  posture  to  correct  is  that  of 
Type  3.  Manual  correction  here  is  almost  impossible.  The 
trouble  lies  in  over-contraction  of  lumbar  muscles.  What 
must  be  secured  is  partial  relaxation  of  these  with  a  firmer 
tone  in  the  abdominal  group.  Localized  relaxation  is  always 
difficult  to  get.  It  is  possibly  best  obtaind  by  directing  at¬ 
tention  elsewhere.  The  arms  may  be  stretcht  sideways  as 
far  as  possible,  or  the  position  shown  in  Figure  4  may  be 
used.  In  it  the  hands  are  claspt  directly  on  top  of  the  hed, 
not  on  the  crown,  and  are  then  prest  down  on  the  hed  while 
the  hed  is  pusht  upward  strongly  against  the  hands.  So 
complete  is  every  effort  to  push  high  up  against  the  hands 
that  the  weight  is  lifted  from  the  heels  and  with  this  cen¬ 
tering  of  every  effort  upon  an  upward  reach  against  an  ob- 


17 

stacle,  the  lumbar  spine  usually  relaxes  enough  to  reliev  the 
extreme  curv.  If  the  hight  thus  gaind  can  be  kept  while 
arms  and  shoulders  are  allowd  to  drop  easily,  correction  is 
accomplisht.  It  remains  only  to  remember  “the  feel”  of  the 
corrected  position,  which  can  then  be  more  quickly  assumed 
a  second  time. 

Sometimes  if  the  body  is  flexible  and  the  cloth  r  g  per¬ 
mits  perfect  freedom  the  lumbar  relaxation  can  be  accomp¬ 
lisht  by  stretching  the  arms  upward.  (See  Fig.  5.)  In  this 
case  everything  should  give  way  from  the  heels  up  to  allow 
the  fingers  to  reach  the  highest  possible  point.  Reaching  up 
with  the  hed,  arms  hanging  at  the  sides,  sometimes  helps, 
but  these  cases  of  hollow  back  must  never  be  told  to  lift  the 
chest  or  push  it  forward,  for  such  effort  always  increases 
their  defect.  Occasionally  attention  directed  to  contraction 
of  abdominal  muscles  counteracts  that  of  the  lumbar  group. 
These  suggestions  are  offerd  in  what  is  believd  to  be  the  or¬ 
der  of  their  usefulness.  Each  teacher  must  work  out  his 
own  methods,  however,  and  must  search  for  the  right  word 
in  giving  correction  and  encouragement. 

Now  and  then  a  Type-4  posture  is  discoverd.  The  key 
to  its  correction  is  a  lifting  of  the  chest,  which  may  be  ex- 
cedingly  difficult  to  achieve,  but  without  which  correction 
is  entirely  impossible.  Effort  can  sometimes  be  directed  by 
placing  a  hand  upon  the  child’s  chest  and  asking  him  to 
push  upward  and  forward  against  it.  Or  he  may  place  his 
own  fingertips  upon  the  center  of  the  sternum,  allow  the 
chest  to  sink  as  much  as  he  likes,  then  push  hard  upward 
and  forward  against  them.  Or  he  may  be  told  to  hollow 
the  back  and  to  pull  back  the  hips,  but  such  a  suggestion 
should  never  reach  the  class  as  a  whole.  Manual  correc¬ 
tion  may  be  given. 

In  all  corrected  posture  pupils  must  be  convinst  that 
their  personal  appearance  is  not  conspicuous,  that  it  does 
not  look  as  it  feels,  and  that  the  awkward  feeling  will  dis¬ 
appear. 

If  each  day  a  few  minutes  is  spent  in  this  posture  work, 
one  by  one  pupils  join  the  ranks  of  those  who  have  trans¬ 
lated  their  visual  image  into  one  of  muscular  sense,  who  can 


18 

assume  at  will  a  standing  posture  in  which  visceral  activity 
is  unimpeded  and  muscular  tone  conservd. 

Not  very  much  effectiv  gymnastic  work  can  be  given 
until  this  point  is  reacht,  but  an  abundance  of  physical  ex¬ 
ercise  of  the  most  interesting  sort  can  and  should  by  all 
means  be  given  daily,  either  preceding  or  following  the 
brief  posture  drill.  This  work  on  posture  should  be  earnest 
and  concentrated,  but  it  should  not  be  allowd  to  crowd  out 
that  vigorous  free  movement  which  is  essential  to  break  the 
school  periods  of  sustaind  sitting. 

(3)  Formation  of  posture-habits . — When  hed,  chest, 
and  hips  can  be  voluntarily  adjusted  in  conformity  with  the 
standard,  there  logically  follows  the  establishment  of  this  ad¬ 
justment  as  a  habit — a  distinct  problem  calling  for  its  own 
methods. 

Three  stages  in  the  formation  of  posture-habits. — We 
cannot  speak  of  a  correct  posture-habit  as  being  establisht 
until  (1)  a  child  maintains  the  vertical  line  positions  thru 
all  activities  in  which  it  easily  is  possible,  such  as  walking, 
marching,  sitting,  standing  for  recitation,  etc.;  (2)  until  he 
maintains  the  desired  adjustment  under  conditions  of  in- 
creast  difficulty;  (3)  until  he  returns  to  this  posture  invari¬ 
ably  after  activities  which  make  it  impossible;  until,  in 
short,  the  whole  bodily  mechanism — bones,  ligaments,  nervs, 
and  muscles — become  thoroly  adapted  to  its  maintenance. 
If  defectiv  posture  be  a  matter  of  long  standing,  structural 
modifications  have  taken  place  and  its  correction  involvs  the 
stretching  of  some  ligaments  and  muscles,  the  shortening  of 
others,  the  development  of  more  strength  in  some  muscle 
groups,  the  modification  of  nervous  response.  Such 
changes  require  time.  When  it  is  rememberd,  also,  that 
man  has  not  yet  become  perfectly  adapted  to  the  upright 
posture,  that  he  maintains  it  against  constant  odds,  it 
may  be  perceivd  redily  that  a  theory  of  posture-training  may 
underlie  logically  all  directed  exercise  during  the  growing 
period.  Other  results  from  muscular  activity  should  be  in 
view  but  posture-training  should  not  be  lost  sight  of. 

These  stages  which  mark  the  acquisition  of  the  desired 
habit  are  what  might  be  expected  and  to  a  certain  extent 
they  may  determin  the  emfasis  of  effort.  We  should  expect 


19 

the  maintenance  of  correct  adjustment  first  in  those  activi¬ 
ties  in  which  mechanical  difficulties  are  small — obviously  in 
sitting  and  standing  rather  than  in  gymnastics  or  dancing; 
also  first  in  those  activities  which  least  divert  attention  from 
posture — in  marching,  then,  before  success  in  dumbells  or 
wand  exercises.  Since  the  simplest  problem  is  one  of  cor¬ 
rect  posture  while  sitting  and  standing,  we  should  emfasize 
this  from  the  first.  Rediness  for  the  beginning  of  school, 
for  the  beginning  of  a  recitation,  for  singing,  for  dismissal 
may  constitute  posture  drill,  may  form  opportunities  for  en¬ 
couragement,  correction,  and  that  imprint  from  repetition 
which  results  in  habit.  Since  the  second  step  in  difficulty 
is  correct  adjustment  during  simple  and  more  or  less  auto¬ 
matic  movement,  we  should  expect  success  next  in  the  pass¬ 
ing  out  at  recess  or  dismissal,  in  moving  from  classroom  to 
classroom,  and  in  marching  exercises  where  attention  is 
partly  engaged  by  the  details  of  tactics.  Much  might  be 
said  on  the  value  of  intelligently  conducted  marching;  but 
only  a  brief  discussion  of  it  can  be  given  here. 

The  use  of  marching  in  posture-training . — -Marching  is 
everywhere  practist  in  public  schools.  It  is  a  necessity  in 
moving  classes  without  confusion.  As  a  part  of  physical 
training  it  is  felt  to  possess  hygienic,  disciplinary,  and  some¬ 
times  recreativ  effects.  Children  enjoy  it  on  the  whole,  prob¬ 
ably  often  find  it  restful,  and  in  marching  the  subordination 
of  the  individual  to  his  group  of  course  is  achievd.  These 
reasons  probably  figure  in  the  minds  of  teachers,  but  not 
many  realize  that  marching  is  the  one  means  of  cultivating 
habitual  gait  or  that  it  is  one  of  the  very  best  means  of  form¬ 
ing  the  habit  of  erect  posture.  Much  marching  is  flagrantly 
slouchy  and  when  we  look  carefully  beneath  the  general  ef¬ 
fect  of  trimness  in  what  is  cald  good  marching  at  the  boys 
and  girls  in  line  we  rarely  see  evidence  of  attention  to  indi¬ 
vidual  bearing.  The  average  observer,  the  average  teacher, 
is  not  sensitiv  on  this  point.  In  his  estimation  straight  lines, 
even  spaces,  step  and  rhythm  come  before  erect  posture,  the 
adjustment  of  the  individual  to  his  group  before  adjustment 
of  the  body  segments  to  each  other,  if,  indeed,  this  ever  re- 
ceivs  attention. 


20 

Standards  of  marching  have  been  false  in  the  extreme. 
Hours  have  been  spent  in  teaching  young  children  to  keep 
step  and  success  has  come  with  the  sacrifice  of  all  lightness 
and  spring  in  the  gait.  At  lavish  expenditure  of  time  elab¬ 
orate  evolutions  have  been  practist  and  results  admired 
when  not  one-fourth  of  the  children  in  the  intricate  lines 
knew  how  to  carry  themselvs.  A  more  clear-eyed  consid¬ 
eration  of  the  individual  would  bring  markt  changes  in 
methods  of  teaching  marching  with  results  of  permanent 
value,  an  habitual  carriage  which  is  economical,  stimulat¬ 
ing,  self-respecting,  and  beautiful. 

Before  even  plain  marching  can  be  done  excellently 
well,  many  details  must  receiv  attention — step,  rhythm,  in¬ 
dividual  bearing,  spacing,  alignment,  the  start,  the  halt. 
Neither  children  nor  adults  can  keep  all  of  these  in  mind 
without  practis.  Each  must  be  emfasized  for  a  time,  until 
automatic  or  partly  so,  then  new  details  added  as  pupils  are 
able  to  keep  them  in  mind.  Drill  on  rhythm  must  come  first 
because  uniform  rhythm  is  the  essence  of  marching,  but  if 
this  is  set  for  the  naturally  brisk  pace  of  children  it  will  not 
require  prolonged  and  exclusiv  attention.  It  should  be  lively 
because  nothing  conduces  to  heviness  and  general  relaxa¬ 
tion  of  posture  in  children  more  than  a  slow  rhythm,  and  it 
must  be  remembered  that  what  would  be  reasonably  brisk 
for  the  long  legs  of  adults  may  be  painfully  slow  for  the 
short  legs  of  children.  Naturally  rhythm  is  proportional  to 
length  of  lim.  Music  for  marching  should  be  playd  lightly. 
Thundering  music  meaps  a  thundering  step.  When  rhythm 
is  establisht,  first  attention  should  be  given  to  individual 
bearing.  Marching  should  frequently  be  preceded  by  brief 
posture  drill  and  details  of  step,  alignment,  spacing,  etc., 
should  be  introduced  only  as  they  can  be  without  loss  of  the 
erect  posture  thus  acquired.  Individual  bearing  should  be 
referd  to  frequently.  Marching  tactics  should  be  kept  sim¬ 
ple  until  an  erect  bearing  is  nearly  automatic.  Thus  taught 
marching  becomes  a  most  effectiv  means  of  posture-train¬ 
ing. 

Other  means  are  extremely  useful  and  at  times  neces¬ 
sary.  Marching  by  no  means  supplies  conditions  of  great 
difficulty  either  mechanical  or  nervous  for  the  maintenance 


21 

of  what  has  been  described  as  a  standard  adjustment  of  the 
body  segments.  Abdominal  and  spinal  muscles  and  those 
of  the  neck  rather  easily  maintain  a  vertical  position  of  the 
hed  and  trunk  in  walking,  and  simple  tactics  do  not  absorb 
the  attention. 

Gymnastics  in  posture-training . — Desired  posture  is  not 
fixt  until  it  is  retaind  during  movements  which  absorb  the 
attention,  even  during  movements  which  offer  mechanical 
difficulty.  Such  conditions  are  supplied  by  gymnastics. 
Again,  if  long  standing  defectiv  posture  is  to  be  corrected 
some  ligaments  and  muscles  must  be  stretcht,  some  shortend 
and  strengthend.  This  work  can  be  done  only  by  gym¬ 
nastics. 

The  value  of  gymnastic  exercise  in  posture-training  has 
been  recognized  for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  Its  use  is 
perfectly  logical.  It  rests  upon  well-known  anatomic  and 
psychological  principles  and  its  efficiency  has  been  demon¬ 
strated  so  many  times  that  there  has  grown  up  a  rather 
blind  faith  in  it,  a  feeling  that  in  some  magical  way  an  awk¬ 
ward  gait,  bad  sitting  and  standing  postures,  and  round 
shoulders  especially  must  disappear  with  the  practis  of  gym¬ 
nastics.  This  effect  is  expected,  among  others,  when  gym¬ 
nastic  exercise  is  introduced  into  the  school  curriculum. 
Observation  proves,  however,  that  no  such  magic  and  in¬ 
evitable  effect  results.  Muscular  coordination  improves  in¬ 
variably,  muscular  development  usually,  habitual  posture 
sometimes.  This  almost  reverses  the  desirable  order  and 
calls  for  more  intelligent  methods  of  teaching. 

In  games  and  dancing  we  have  unlimited  means  for  de¬ 
veloping  muscular  strength  and  coordination.  In  so  far  as 
these  exercises  increase  lung  capacity  and  general  vitality 
they  influence  habitual  posture  favorably,  but  they  are  ill- 
adapted  for  the  systematic  posture-training  so  evidently 
needed.  Gymnastics  are  admirably  suited,  and  there  is  a 
growing  belief  that  they  must  be  made  to  serv  this  end  or 
forfit  their  place  in  physical  training  procedure.  Their  use 
for  recreation  and  for  directly  hygienic  purposes  is  a  make¬ 
shift,  For  posture-training,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  a 
most  powerful  instrument  whenever  individual  exercises  are 


selected  with  this  end  in  view  and  their  execution  super¬ 
vised  with  strict  attention  to  form. 

In  such  selection,  emfasis  will  be  placed  upon  move¬ 
ments  which  train  and  strengthen  the  spinal  muscles,  those 
that  develop  abdominal  and  side  waist  muscles,  and  those 
that  lift  the  hed  and  elevate  the  ribs.  The  daily  lesson  will 
not  omit  such  movements,  tho  foot-placings  and  arm- 
stretchings  may  have  to  be  cut  short.  In  the  choice  of  par¬ 
ticular  trunk  movements,  the  teacher  will  be  guided  by  their 
immediate  effects  upon  the  adjustment  of  the  spine.  For 
example:  a  trunk-bending  forward  draws  the  hips  back¬ 
ward  and  calls  into  action  the  spinal  extensors  from  the 
sacrum  to  the  hed;  and  if  warning  is  given  not  to  carry  the 
trunk-raising  which  follows  it  too  far,  it  exerts  a  most  fa¬ 
vorable  effect  in  correcting  the  fatigue  posture.  It  is  there¬ 
fore  an  exercise  which  should  be  used  liberally  and  early  in 
posture-training.  On  the  other  hand,  trunk-bending  back¬ 
ward,  unless  good  posture-control  is  alredy  establisht, 
throws  the  hips  forward  and  the  upper  trunk  backward,  de¬ 
presses  the  chest  and  causes  the  hed  to  be  thrust  forward. 
This  being  true,  the  latter  movement  will  be  introduced  very 
much  later  in  gymnastic  work  and  discontinued  if  after 
reasonable  effort  from  pupils  and  teachers  it  cannot  be  exe¬ 
cuted  without  these  faults.  In  the  choice  of  arm  and  foot 
movements,  their  effect  upon  the  position  of  the  hed,  chest, 
and  hips  will  not  be  lost  sight  of.  For  example,  in  arm¬ 
stretching  forward  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  upper  trunk 
to  be  displaced  backward  as  it  is  in  the  most  common  type 
of  the  defectiv  posture,  while  the  tendency  in  arm-stretch¬ 
ing  sideways  is  to  correct  this  very  defect  in  spinal  adjust¬ 
ment,  Obviously  the  latter  exercise  should  be  emfasized  and 
the  former  shund  until  correct  adjustment  is  well  under  con¬ 
trol.  Then,  added  control  is  secured  by  introducing  just  this 
element  of  difficulty.  Stretching  the  arms  vertically  upward 
is  often  impossible  without  inducing  an  exaggeration  of  the 
posture  seen  in  Figure  2.  An  execution  of  this  apparently 
simple  movement  while  maintaining  hed,  chest,  and  hips  in 
vertical  relation  marks  the  perfection  of  posture  control.  To 
require  the  repetition  of  this  movement  when  a  majority  of 


23 

the  class  find  it  impossible  not  to  exaggerate  a  deplorable 
defect  only  increases  the  defect  and  makes  it  more  perma¬ 
nent.  Therefore,  whether  poor  form  in  this  exercise  is  due 
to  restriction  from  clothing,  tight  ligaments,  or  tense  mus¬ 
cles,  it  must  not  be  introduced  until  the  erect  posture  can  be 
held  during  arm  exercises  which  present  less  mechanical 
difficulty. 

Difficulties ,  dangers ,  and  precautionary  suggestions. — 
The  teacher  ambitious  for  success  in  posture-training 
and  determind  to  secure  excellence  in  gymnastic  exe¬ 
cution  should  not  be  appald  at  the  number  of  de¬ 
tails  that  require  attention.  In  so  simple  an  exercise 
as  arm-stretching  sideways,  there  is  the  direction  of 
the  extension,  its  rhythm,  force,  and  accent,  hight  of 
the  arms,  the  position  of  the  wrist  and  fingers,  the  po¬ 
sition  of  the  shoulder  blades,  of  the  hed,  chest,  and  hips. 
The  location  of  town  or  county  boundaries  is  hardly  defined 
more  accurately  than  is  a  gymnastic  movement.  In  an  ex¬ 
ercise  which  consists  of  a  combination  or  succession  of 
movements  multiplication  of  details  is  proportional  to  its 
complexity.  Perfect  execution  results  only  from  prolongd 
training.  Faults  innumerable  are  presented  by  the  perform¬ 
ance  of  a  class.  Attention  to  all  of  them  is  neither  possible 
nor  desirable.  This  is  well  enough  understood.  What  needs 
to  be  insisted  upon  is  that  the  most  obvious  faults  are  often 
not  those  which  should  receiv  first  attention.  The  impulse, 
of  course,  is  to  correct  first  those  which  injure  the  spectacu¬ 
lar  effect — the  uneven  file,  the  arm  out  of  line,  the  too  long 
or  too  short  step,  a  failure  to  respond  as  quickly  as  the  rest 
of  the  class.  Lookt  at  from  the  standpoint  of  benefit  to  the 
individual  these  are  corrections  which  may  well  be  left  until 
later.  A  pupil  should  be  permitted,  helpt,  urged  to  hold  the 
main  segments  of  his  own  body  in  line  with  each  other  be¬ 
fore  he  is  askt  to  occupy  that  particular  spot  on  the  floor 
which  will  bring  it  into  line  with  half  a  dozen  other  bodies, 
and  of  course  it  is  important  that  he  execute  a  movement  in 
correct  form  even  if  he  is  a  trifle  slow  about  it.  Nevertheless 
the  teacher’s  impulse  is  strong  to  call  attention  to  the  ob¬ 
vious  even  at  the  expense  of  the  valuable.  It  is  responsible 
for  the  performance  so  admired  by  undiscriminating  spec- 


tators  on  field  days  and  at  gymnastic  exhibitions,  and  for 
the  failure  of  gymnastics  to  improve  the  habitual  posture  of 
school  children. 

Equally  responsible,  perhaps,  is  the  tendency  to  have 
gymnastic  movements  follow  each  other  rhythmically  before 
they  have  been  perfected  at  command.  In  giving  each  move¬ 
ment  at  command  the  attention  of  teachers  and  pupils  is 
centerd  upon  one  thing  at  a  time.  Faults  are  more  easily 
avoided,  more  easily  detected  when  they  occur,  more 
promptly  corrected,  and  repetition  of  any  detail  of  the  ex¬ 
ercise  is  more  easily  varied  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  class 
than  is  possible  when  music  or  counting  carries  the  move¬ 
ments  along  thru  a  series  of  repetitions.  In  gymnastics  at 
command  we  should  expect  to  see  finer  form  in  execution 
and  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  usually  do.  Since  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  poor  form  in  gymnastic  execution  coun¬ 
teracts  other  efforts  in  posture-training,  it  becomes  vital  to 
delay  transition  to  rhythmic  gymnastics  until  posture-con¬ 
trol  is  well  establisht  and  to  keep  rhythmic  gymnastics  sim¬ 
ple  enough  to  prevent  any  relapse  into  defectiv  posture 
habits. 

The  vertebral  colum  is  the  central  supporting  structure 
of  the  human  body.  Its  correct  adjustment  should  be  made 
the  central  aim  in  gymnastic  teaching,  for  only  thus  can 
this  form  of  exercize  make  its  own  distinctiv  and  indis¬ 
pensable  contribution  to  physical  training. 

Permanent  establishment  of  posture-habits, — When  the 
sense  of  correct  vertebral  adjustment  has  been  made  a  part 
of  innumerable  motor  concepts,  when  the  trunk  muscles 
have  become  strong  enough  to  hold  such  an  adjustment  un¬ 
der  the  mechanical  difficulties  of  many  gymnastic  positions, 
there  remains  but  one  step  to  complete  a  permanent  effect 
upon  the  child’s  body.  What  has  become  habitual  in  march¬ 
ing  and  gymnastics  must  be  made  habitual  in  all  of  the 
other  activities  of  physical  training,  and  of  life.  It  must 
contribute  to  the  lightness  and  grace  of  dancing  and  to  the 
beauty  of  athletic  exercise.  It  must  promote  physical  econ¬ 
omy  and  contribute  to  the  dignity  of  all  human  intercourse. 
It  must  be  made  completely  habitual.  There  must  come 
that  easy  and  flexible  erectness  in  which  the  body  refuses  to 


25 

collapse  tho  it  must  bend,  that  involuntarily  return  to  an  at¬ 
titude  expressing  courage  and  strength  which  marks  the 
best  physical  types. 

It  is  best  to  admit  that  this  cannot  be  made  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  every  child,  that  diseasd  and  exhausted  parents,  ig¬ 
norance,  and  poverty  place  handicaps  from  the  beginning. 
Yet  when  we  realize  the  plasticity  of  youth,  and  its  wonder¬ 
ful  vitality,  and  the  marvelous  permanent  changes  that  are 
produced  in  plants  and  animals  during  the  growing  period 
by  formativ  forces,  we  must  believ  that  persistent  and  in¬ 
telligent  attention  to  this  factor  of  human  helth  will  yield 
more  encouraging  results  than  have  been  dreamd  of. 

Strong  and  attractiv  incentivs  necessanj. — The  most 
potent  force  in  bringing  completely  habitual  erectness  is  by 
all  odds  individual  ambition.  Without  this  a  strong  teacher 
may  secure  the  desired  results  during  physical  training  per¬ 
iods  but  no  permanent  erectness  is  possible.  In  stimulating 
ambition,  methods,  naturally,  must  vary  with  the  age  of 
pupils.  Teachers  accustomd  to  working  with  children 
know  best  what  ones  to  use.  Many  of  the  most  effectiv  de¬ 
vices  for  arousing  ambition  in  this  direction  are  by  no 
means  distinctiv  of  physical  training.  The  skillful  teacher 
appeals  to  the  desire  for  praise,  for  honor,  for  distinction,  to 
the  competitiv  instinct,  to  the  genuin  desire  for  improvement 
which  is  found  in  every  child.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into 
details  concerning  the  use  of  honor  lists,  badges,  ribbons,  or 
the  award  of  monitorships,  leaderships,  and  captaincies  for 
excellence  in  posture.  Nor  is  it  well  to  despise  these  de¬ 
vices.  They  are  often  effectiv  and  should  be  used  wherever 
they  will  serv. 

Most  consistent  and  equally  desirable,  is  the  require¬ 
ment  of  reasonably  correct  posture  habits  for  athletic  hon¬ 
ors.  Probably  this  also  is  most  difficult  to  require,  so  foren 
is  it  to  common  custom.  Yet  if  sports  are  fosterd,  as  they 
assumedly  are,  for  the  symmetric  development  of  the  young 
boy  or  girl,  and  if  teams  are  to  represent,  as  they  supposedly 
do,  the  best  product  of  that  fostering,  nothing  could  be  more 
illogical  than  to  allow  on  pickt  teams  such  specimens  of 
one-sided  development  as  are  sometimes  seen  there.  Very 
few  methods  would  yield  surer  results  in  the  improvement 


26 

of  general  bearing  than  such  a  requirement.  It  would  af¬ 
fect  directly  all  adolescents  and  indirectly  all  of  their 
younger  hero  worshipers. 

If  posture-training  is  to  assume  its  legitimate  place  in 
physical  training  some  recognition  of  it  must  be  made  in 
demonstrations  and  field-day  programs ,  and  this  is  not  dif¬ 
ficult  to  arrange.  No  inconsiderable  effort  toward  erect  pos¬ 
ture  was  stimulated  some  years  ago  among  the  children  of 
the  training  department  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  Uni¬ 
versity  by  the  award  of  ribbon  badges  as  part  of  the  annual 
field-day  program.  Presentation  was  made  by  the  president 
of  the  school.  To  receiv  a  badge  of  distinction  from  so 
great  a  personage  on  so  important  an  occasion  assumed  the 
proportions  of  a  great  honor  in  the  eyes  of  the  children. 
This  was  done  before  definit  posture  tests  came  into  use; 
standards  were  entirely  in  the  judgment  of  the  teacher;  but 
the  plan  was  put  before  the  children  early  in  the  year;  rib¬ 
bons  were  awarded  for  improvement  as  well  as  for  actual 
achievement;  the  number  given  in  each  grade  was  not  too 
great  and  not  too  small  to  be  stimulating;  and  results  proved 
the  scheme  most  worth  while. 

A  “review  of  troops”  before  judges  of  distinction  may 
well  form  part  of  the  field-day  program.  The  very  fact  that 
by  the  judges,  at  least,  this  marching  will  be  viewd  with  an 
eye  to  individual  bearing  will  result  in  effectiv  effort  on  the 
part  of  both  teachers  and  pupils.  A  brief  setting-up  drill 
given  in  connection  with  the  review  with  the  purpose  of 
each  announst  on  the  program  will  emfasize  still  further  to 
parents  and  to  the  public  the  value  of  posture-training.  At- 
tractiv  suggestions  of  military  performance  are  by  no  means 
desirable,  nor  are  they  necessary;  but  the  recognition  by 
military  authorities  that  posture  is  intimately  associated 
with  physical  endurance  and  practical  efficiency  should  es¬ 
cape  no  one,  and  their  methods  of  cultivating  an  erect  bear¬ 
ing  may  well  be  studied.  In  competition  between  grades, 
first,  second,  or  third  place  in  posture  maintenance  should 
give  the  same  number  of  points  as  first,  second,  or  third 
place  in  track  or  field  events. 

Field  days,  however,  come  but  once  a  year.  More  fre¬ 
quent  recognition  of  posture-habits  is  needed  both  to  en- 


21 

courage  effort  on  the  part  of  the  children  and  to  secure  for 
them  the  help  which  comes  from  interest  on  the  part  of 
parents.  The  monthly  report  card  suggests  itself.  If  pos¬ 
ture-training  is  as  valuable  as  has  been  argued  in  this  paper, 
it  quite  deservs  a  place  on  the  monthly  report  cards,  and 
certainly  thru  them  it  can  secure  the  respectful  attention  of 
parents.  Miss  Bancroft’s  book  on  posture  contains  a  dis¬ 
cussion  of  the  system  of  grading  which  is  used  in  the  New 
York  City  public  schools,  with  an  account  of  the  very  grati¬ 
fying  results  which  have  come  with  its  use.  This  is  well 
worth  the  attention  of  any  one  interested  in  posture.  So 
valuable  is  the  help  of  parents  in  this  as  in  other  phases  of 
school  work  that  every  means  should  be  taken  to  interest 
them  and  to  make  them  intelligent  regarding  this  factor  in 
the  helth  of  their  children. 

Parents  have  sole  control  over  many  potent  causativ 
conditions:  general  nutrition,  defectiv  vision,  unsuitable 
work,  clothing,  adenoids,  are  some  of  these.  Obviously 
without  effectiv  cooperation  from  parents,  those  cases  of  de¬ 
fectiv  posture  which  are  due  to  unhygienic  home  conditions 
cannot  be  reacht.  Unfavorable,  also,  is  the  misdirected  nag¬ 
ging  of  parents  who  are  interested  in  the  posture  habits  of 
their  children  but  who  are  utterly  ignorant  of  helpful  cor- 
rectiv  methods.  There  is  every  reason  for  bringing  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  posture  into  the  programs  of  parents’  clubs  and  there 
treating  it  with  all  of  the  thoroness  possible  under  such  con¬ 
ditions. 

In  these  and  in  all  other  ways  possible  there  must  be 
created  the  incentiv  of  popular  demand  and  expectation. 
Not  much  thought  has  been  given  to  this  phase  of  posture¬ 
training;  but  it  is  needless  to  multiply  suggestions.  The 
problem  can  be  workt  out  better  by  those  who  are  in  daily 
contact  with  children  than  by  specialists.  Little  experi¬ 
mental  proof  is  at  hand  but  I  firmly  believ  that  with  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  effectiv  incentivs  to  constant  personal  effort, 
much  of  the  time  now  spent  upon  so-cald  correctiv  exer¬ 
cises  can  be  turnd  over  to  more  recreativ  and  more  directly 
hygienic  forms  of  exercise.  Formal  gymnastic  lessons  bear 
the  same  relation  to  the  cultivation  of  erect  posture-habits 
that  lessons  in  oral  and  written  English  bear  to  the  cultiva- 


28 

tion  of  habitually  correct  language.  They  are  just  as  neces¬ 
sary,  and  they  are  just  as  fruitless  without  constant  incen- 
tiv  to  practis  what  is  there  taught.  With  a  constant  and 
powerful  incentiv,  surprising  individual  results  have  been 
shown  within  my  experience  upon  even  a  dirninisht  gym¬ 
nastic  schedule. 

Summary. — I  have  tried  to  make  clear  in  this  paper  the 
relation  between  posture  and  helth,  to  suggest  the  mechani¬ 
cal  difficulties  of  the  erect  posture,  to  outline  typical  defects 
which  result  from  these  difficulties,  and  to  indicate  the 
mechanical  principles  which  underlie  their  correction.  I 
have  suggested  the  necessity  of  developing  definit  visual 
posture-concepts  as  the  first  step  in  posture-training,  and 
the  translation  of  the  visual  concept  into  terms  of  muscular 
sense  as  the  second  step.  After  this,  the  formation  of  cor¬ 
rect  posture-habits  must  procede  thru  practis  under  condi¬ 
tions  of  increasing  difficulty,  both  mechanical  and  psycho¬ 
logical.  I  have  tried  to  show  the  very  great  possibilities  of 
posture-training  in  marching  if  it  is  taught  with  this  end  in 
view;  to  make  clear  the  necessity  for  carefully  pland  gym¬ 
nastic  work;  but  above  all  the  utter  futility  of  these  agencies 
in  correcting  bad  posture-habits  when  not  supplemented  by 
powerful  motivs  for  improvement.  Such  motivs  will  be 
developt  wherever  teachers  become  interested  in  posture¬ 
training  and  this  will  be  wherever  they  or  their  leaders  can 
look,  clear-eyed,  thru  the  screen  of  accepted  procedures  and 
practises  at  the  needs  of  individual  children. 


:/V 


